Anatomy of a Conservation Landscape

(The 'Kanha as a Moveable Feast' Series)

This article series derives its spirit from ‘A Moveable Feast’ a memoir written by the famous American author Ernest Hemingway. In his memoir, he wrote that if one has lived somewhere passionately, it remains with you, nourishes you, wherever you go. My long years at Kanha have been something of that kind - a landscape of memories, reflections, animals, seasons, panoramas, and, of course, questions that still travel with me, long after I bade it goodbye.

It was a cold, crisp morning at Kanha in late December. The sun had already risen out of the distant hazy forested hills, and its slanting rays were reaching the famed Sonf meadow through a grove of stately, lush green, dripping Sal trees. Until 1969, this grassland was occupied by Sonf village, burdened by typical anthropogenic pressure, which was relocated outside the national park. It was probably the first relocation carried out in independent India to reclaim 1,000 ha of land for barasingha conservation. What a farsighted initiative that must have sounded so bizarre 57 years ago!

by Sudhir Mishra

The meadow was shrouded in a light mist. The landscape was vibrant with jungle soundscapes—rustling leaves, chirping birds, distant animal calls, punctuated by piercing peacock calls amid the usual heady fragrance of nature. Sitting in the Gypsy, I scanned the meadow through binoculars. This was now a prime habitat of the hard ground barasingha (Rucervus duvauceli branderi), an endangered deer subspecies. These cervids were once geographically endemic to Kanha national park until 2015, when the wildlife wing of the forest department decided to reintroduce several founders into Satpura tiger reserve, their former geographical range, under an ambitious and successful project. Later, in 2023, several animals were also introduced into Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve under this project. While the remarkable success story of its conservation had made the Kanha management proud and brought many accolades over all these decades, the pressure to outperform itself in always ensuring - not merely the survival but also an increase in the population of this deer subspecies - had also made the management somewhat anxious.

The dominant stag, with large, well-branched antlers, was passionately engaged in various courtship activities, trying his luck with one or another of the several adult females of his small harem, while a few sub-dominant stags looked on, waiting for an opportunity. The stag raised his head, or rather his nose, in a characteristic way for a few seconds, and I instantly perceived what would now follow. He again raised his head and started giving forth a bugle-like call, beginning on a low pitch and swooping up to high, clear notes, the last of which were long drawn out. These typical rutting calls resound through the valley and herald romance and courtship among the animals of this subspecies during mid-winter.

All of a sudden, amid the frenetic calls of black-faced monkeys, there was a great burst of ruckus in the herd and the animals darted in almost every direction. By the time I could focus my glasses, the huge tiger had pounced on and pulled down a doe to the ground. Anthropomorphically speaking, it was romantic longing and instant killing - a almost cruel paradox of the jungle - involving two iconic species at two trophic levels in the Kanha ecosystem.

by Sudhir Mishra

Nestled basically on the northern slopes of the Maikal Hills of the Satpuras in the Central Indian highlands, it falls administratively in the Mandla and Balaghat districts of Madhya Pradesh. As per the biogeographic classification of India, the tiger reserve area lies in Zone 6E—Deccan Peninsula (Central Highlands). The Halon and Banjar valleys, named after the respective rivers and forming the eastern and western parts - two ecological units - of the core zone respectively, are connected by a narrow ridge or corridor known as the “chicken’s neck”. Some Kanhaphiles also liken a large area of the core zone to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area of Tanzania, which is, of course, very large. Though Kanha is greener, and the horseshoe-shaped valley is surrounded by a more densely wooded cordon of hills, this comparison nevertheless sounds convincing to many Kanha admirers. Another basis for comparison is the large number of wild ungulates that throng the Kanha meadow almost throughout the year.

One of the most ecologically preserved protected areas in the country, Kanha tiger reserve forms part of an eco-region once renowned internationally for its rich floral and faunal attributes. The tiger reserve and its surroundings were once proud witnesses to an amazing era of conservation history. There is an enormous body of writings - diaries, memoirs, and books - authored by Indian and British wildlife conservationists, forest and army officers, and, of course, huntsmen, on the wide spectrum of wildlife species and their abundance in these wilds. These forest tracts were regarded as some of the finest and hitherto untouched wilderness areas in the country. Many widely travelled Indian and British conservationists, who had also enjoyed the finest wilderness areas of Africa and Europe, were in awe of this region and expressed themselves generously in their accounts. Until the first three or four decades of the last century, human population in and around the present Kanha Tiger Reserve was not a serious threat to natural heritage. Increasing biotic pressure, however, quietly indicated the shape of things to come in the future.

Acclaimed countrywide as excellent shikar blocks in the 1930s, parts of the above two valleys later moved up in conservation status and became wildlife sanctuaries and later jointly formed the present national park of around 253 sq km in 1955. This park area gradually increased to acquire a size of around 940 sq km. The potential for tiger conservation was so good that later the national park was also among the first nine to be included in the ambitious Project Tiger scheme (now rechristened as the National Tiger Conservation Authority) in 1973. It was probably the first tiger reserve in the country to be managed, starting in the late 1990s, under a classic and effective core–buffer strategy.

The total area of the core zone is 917.43 sq km. The present core zone is technically part of the Kanha national park of 940 sq km. As per the IUCN, a protected area is defined as an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means. As per the priorities accorded to main management objectives, there are six categories of protected areas, and Kanha National Park belongs to the second category (ecosystem conservation and recreation).

by RB Pathak

With the successful relocation of all the 37 forest villages, the core zone is now a completely inviolate and tranquil zone. The remaining eight villages are technically in the national park but outside the core zone. The area of the buffer zone is 1,134.31 sq km and consists of forestland, revenue land, and private holdings. Except for some of the eastern part, the buffer zone almost completely surrounds the core zone. The buffer zone has been visualized as a “multiple-use” area and, besides 608 sq km of forestland, it also supports 165 villages, agricultural practices, cattle rearing, and typical anthropogenic activities. Villagers of this zone, however, are under a legal obligation to help the Kanha management in the conservation of spillover populations of wildlife from the core zone. The Kanha management, on the other hand, undertakes a wide range of forestry, civil, and agricultural development works in these villages. This arrangement reflects a successful park–people participation in conservation.

The Kanha core landscape consists mainly of forested shallow undulations, hills with a range of gradients, plateaus, and valleys. While the vegetation is comprised mainly of Sal and miscellaneous crops, thirteen vegetation cover types have given rise to several settings and transitions within the Kanha ecosystem. These, in turn, have resulted in excellent mosaics of wildlife habitats and structural variations for major faunal species. The habitats themselves provide a range of micro-habitat niches that are also valuable for lesser fauna.

Though this national park was already being managed under the existing policies, Acts, and rules, it received the much-needed impetus only after it was taken under Project Tiger, and it has continued to develop steadily ever since. Protection of wildlife and its habitats was accorded the topmost priority. Habitat improvement programmes were undertaken systematically for the eradication of weed and brushwood species to ensure the good health of the famous Kanha meadows, life-sustaining for thousands of ungulates. Availability of water was also ensured throughout the protected area. In the past, all these forest villages were typically practising agriculture and animal husbandry and exerting immense biotic pressure on wildlife habitats. Now, with successful relocation outside the protected area, the abandoned village sites—once burdened by massive and chronic anthropogenic footprints of many generations—have been restored to the original grasslands of the past, now the mainstay for thousands of ungulates of different species. In short, the national park gradually recovered from the past onslaught, and systematic conservation initiatives ensured the restructuring of the Kanha wildlife ecosystem under various tiger conservation and management plans

by Sudhir Mishra

One of the finest examples of in-situ conservation, management practices in the Kanha core zone aim to protect the entire ecosystem, maintain species diversity, and the prevention of species extinction, which is central to the philosophy of biodiversity conservation. Besides the critically endangered hard ground barasingha and the tiger, the protected area also supports a wide range of wildlife species, some of which figure prominently in the IUCN Red Data List.  These species include the wild dog, Bengal fox, sloth bear, smooth coated otter, leopard, gaur, and Indian python etc.  There are 325 species of birds, 30 of mammals, 40 of reptiles, including 25 species of snakes and 15 of lizards, 15 species of frogs, around 500 of insects, 115 of arachnids (spiders), several species of crustaceans, molluscs and fishes, and also lots of species of moths and butterflies. The floral diversity is comprised of around 850 species of angiosperms belonging to 506 genera and 134 families, besides 22 species of Pteridophyte belonging to 14 genera and 14 families. The above floral diversity also includes two species of Gymnosperm belonging to two genera and two families. The above flora of the protected area also includes around 50 species of aquatic plants and 18 species of rare plants. The dominant family in the core zone is Poaceae with 109 species, representing 66 genera. There is still ample scope for intensive floral and faunal surveys to assess and evaluate the status of the protected area before pronouncing upon the same with any finality. 

The resurrection of the majestic hard ground barasingha at Kanha is by far one of the most inspiring successes in the history of wildlife conservation in the country. Recognised as a sub-species of the nominate species of the swamp deer (Rucervus duvauceli duvauceli) of the sub-Himalayan terai of north India, the Kanha barasingha is a food specialist with a narrow niche, and an exclusively graminivorous deer species, dependent totally on grasslands.  Though the species has adapted itself to hard ground conditions of Central India over hundreds of years, it still shows evolutionary affinity for water and swampy areas. Once these royal deer were distributed far and wide occurring in many districts of the erstwhile Madhya Pradesh, and also in Maharashtra, Bihar and Orissa. In the Kanha eco-region, the barasingha roamed the grasslands in large numbers, and had safe and unobstructed access to most of its habitats for its forages, breeding and parturition. Consequently, the large population of this deer, albeit fragmented, with good recruitment every year could survive the slow but sure onslaught of poaching and habitat loss due to encroachment for agriculture and altered land use patterns. In 1938, a census of this deer population was conducted in and around the present Kanha national park which indicated that there were around three thousand animals. In spite of several existent Acts and Laws related to forest and wildlife protection, the wilds were under pressure of illegal hunting and poaching which was unfortunately increasing day by day. Wildlife habitats were subjected to illicit felling, encroachment, cattle grazing and fire. Shifting cultivation or slash and burn practice by a large number of households of local tribes was rampant.  Large chunks of forest were clear-felled and meadows converted into agricultural lands in no time to grow marginal crops. Such lands were retained only for 3-4 years and abandoned later for new ones.  Besides, such destruction was getting more and more mechanised and efficient. While some good steps were taken, they were too late to be effective, and poaching continued unabated, restricting the barasingha population only to the Kanha national park where the population had declined to an all-time low of a mere 66 animals in 1970!

by Sudhir Mishra

The sharp decline of this deer population brought it into sharp national and international focus. Conservationists started pleading with the central and state governments to take corrective measures to stabilise and reverse the situation.  What immediately followed within the forest department were serious discussions, short-term conservation plans, and swift action in the field.  The Kanha management took many systematic managerial initiatives to protect this species and its habitats. After the initial increases and later fluctuations due to predation by carnivores, and selective predation of newborns by jackals, the barasingha population gradually increased. It is so satisfying that now the population of the cervid is around 900 individuals.

The tiger is now regarded as a highly endangered species in the world and is precariously restricted to only a few tiger range-countries, India being one of them. Deeply embedded in the human psyche as a living symbol of power, grandeur, ferocity, and magnificence, and central to innumerable myths of the divine and nature, no species of wildlife has captured the imagination and sentiments of international community in the history of conservation as spontaneously as the tiger, evoking successfully a tremendous response from the concerned quarters. As far as the Indian sub-species is concerned, barring only a few representative wildlife ecosystems, tiger conservation is still said to be fraught with uncertainties and upsets. Against this bleak backdrop, however, Kanha supports a viable population of the super predator, and as per the latest Phase IV monitoring, the Kanha core zone supports 158 tigers (120 adults and 38 cubs). Besides, Kanha also supports a good population of leopards (148 in 2024). There is also a small population of wild dogs. As the carnivore populations depend on good prey-base, habitat improvement and protection have over the years provided large mosaics of grasslands, shrublands, forests and water. These efforts have resulted in a good multiple population of nine major ungulate species currently existing at an overall density of around 87 animals per sq. km. Besides a modest population of the wild pig, this population also include small populations of the blue bull, black buck, and four-horned antelope.

by Sudhir Mishra

Stringent protection throughout the year under various proactive strategies and an effective network of patrolling camps in the national park has played a very important role in tiger conservation. The build-up of a good prey base, ensuring people’s cooperation by undertaking ecodevelopment in the buffer zone, and paying timely compensations for their cattle kills have significantly complemented the protection aspect.  Regular scientific monitoring of the evidence of tigers is also undertaken. All the past conservation initiatives have ensured availability of excellent natal areas for tigers in protected area. While a few poaching cases do occur, there are no organized or commercial tiger crimes in the tiger reserve.   

The management cadre of the Kanha has shown discipline, dedication and camaraderie over all these decades. The management of the tiger reserve under the tremendous human and livestock pressure is a most formidable task. Unlike general forest areas, the tiger reserve is perceived by the common man as having only don’ts - restrictions, threats, and a cold attitude of the park officials towards the public at large. All this invariably draws flak and brickbats making wildlife managers the most popular lot of the forest department in the eyes of the public.

by Sudhir Mishra

Besides, the tiger reserve also presents the most demanding service conditions. It calls for a great deal more of one’s involvement and dedication in management than mere discharge of routine responsibilities. What is most difficult, yet essential, is the attainment of humbleness, modesty, respect and receptivity for other’s opinion and self-effacement for working cohesively as a team for the larger cause of conservation. The cultivation of such a mindset is also crucial for working with the frontline staff including a large number of daily wagers who form the backbone of wildlife protection, the topmost conservation priority in the tiger reserve.

The Kanha management has been headed by a succession of brilliant and down-to-earth officers who have always strived to inculcate the value that team spirit, cohesion and harmony in the ‘Kanha family’ must prevail over all other considerations. This has tremendously boosted the morale especially of the frontline staff that has to do their duty of protection under very difficult living conditions. Being posted away from family is very demanding and frighteningly isolated, making the staff susceptible to stress-related and other problems. Besides, long spells of stay in remote camps expose them to polluted water, mosquitoes and malnutrition, causing gastro-intestinal diseases, malaria and general indisposition. Therefore, it is only the spirit of teamwork that can ensure the best performance in such difficult circumstances. The Kanha management has strived over all these years to provide the field staff with a wide range of facilities to improve their living conditions inside the protected area. Let us hope the tiger reserve continues to fascinate the future generations with its wonderful creatures of the natural world. 

This revised and updated article was first published in Frontline magazine several years ago.